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The Tigris and Euphrates River Basin

 

Problem Overview

 

      The issue most pressing in the Tigris Euphrates River Basin is that of water management. It is an issue that is exacerbated by the arid climate’s tendency for droughts, and the lack of political agreement between the three nations. This background overview will cover the history of this area, the political climate, water usage and the actual climate that all must be understood to tackle the water scarcity that plagues this area.

 

Setting the Scene

 

     To better understand the current water crisis along the Tigris and Euphrates river basin, a brief overview of the region and the history of the two rivers need to be noted. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers are found on the southwest Asia continent known as the Asia Minor and Transcaucasia. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers have been flowing for thousands of years, and have been documented as being the start of civilization (Reed). Over the years archaeological discoveries have uncovered multiple irrigation systems that diverted portions of the rivers for farming, and civil uses, some of which are still in function today. In fact it was these early irrigation systems that brought together early societies that formed “agrarian” societies (Reed), and the land became better known as the “fertile crescent” due to the abundance of water.

 

     Over time more societies were formed from the growing populations, largely because of the growing advancement in agriculture. Over the course of numerous wars, empires, and religious views (Sunni versus Shiite), the southwest Asia continent was divided into different countries, with different rulers and governments. It may be within this statement that reviles the possible reasons for the water crisis. The three countries that will be focused on regarding the water crisis for this region will be Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. All of which have different political views, religious views, and their own agendas for the rivers expenditures. It has been within the last five decades that the water conflict has changed into a water crisis that has erupted between the countries. It is here that the research for defining, and attempting to solve the problem of the Tigris and Euphrates water crisis will begin.

 

 

 

Below is a map of the Tigris and Euphrates river basin:

Figure 1: Tigris and Euphrates Map. Retrieved September 18, 2011, from http://ehsworldstudiesjackoboice.wikispaces.com/Mesopotamia+-+Tigris-Euphrates+River+Valley+(Current+Events

 

 

     The geographical aspect of the Euphrates River is that it is the largest river in Western Asia (Euphrates). The Euphrates River origin is in the country of Turkey and is roughly 2,800 kilometers in length, flowing between the three countries of Turkey, Syria, and Iraq flowing south until the river reaches the Persian Gulf. The rivers length is divided between the countries as follows; forty percent in Turkey, twenty-five percent in Syria, and thirty-five percent in Iraq (Euphrates). The Tigris River also originates in Turkey, but it has a length of roughly 1800 kilometers. The Tigris River flows south into Syria and Iraq. However, the interesting point is that this river becomes the border between Syria and Iraq (Tigris).

 

     The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow rates are seasonal, which means that some of the rivers flow is decreased during the drought season, and it is this seasonal element that contributes to one of the problems that will be focused on. Also, the aspect of climate change, which is another contribution to the core issue that will be discussed later in the narrative. However, the most important aspect that will be researched is the water conflict between the three named countries of Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. Syria and Iraq feel that Turkey is withholding the river's flow. But during the drought season the water scarcity issue is partially due to the seasonal low flow rates, but this situation still leads to increased water conflict from Syria and Iraq against Turkey. But from another perspective, Turkey is involved in a water project called the “South-Eastern Anatolia Project” or the “GAP” (Akanda, et al). This project outlines plans to build dams and reservoirs to hold the water for irrigation purposes, but the article “Paradise Lost?” by C. Reed states, “The water Turkey is holding behind their dams has nothing to do with irrigation. They want to exchange water for oil.”

 

     Without fair negotiations between all three parties involved in the Tigris and Euphrates River conflict a fair solution cannot be reach. Ongoing unilateral developments, religious differences, lack of communication, and insufficient water management have contributed to unsuccessful plans and options in the past. Numerous attempts in 1960, 1975, 1997, 1998, and in 2001 to achieve an agreement have failed. Due to either a bilateral attempt that offended the other country not included in the negotiations, or simply a disagreement in the proposed treaty.

 

     One of the issues in the lack of communication between the three countries is the difference of the governmental policies. The modern secular government of Turkey was founded in 1923, and the Turkish military assume themselves to be the guardian of the Turkish ideology (Politics of Turkey). In turn the Turkish military has assumed certain control over public confrontations without government permission. Although the Turkish community trusts their military there have been some unconstitutional situations involving the prime minister. To date there have been some military personnel that have been charged with terrorism as recent as 2008, and 2010, in an attempt to overturn the Prime Minister (Politics of Turkey).

 

     The government of Syria, or the “Syrian Arab Republic”, is “officially a parliamentary republic” (Politics of Syria). This is when the president and his family rules the over the people. In fact there have only been two presidents in Syria since 1963, a father to son scenario. In Syria, the president and senior aides make the decisions for the people, but laws must be approved by the People’s Council; unless Syria is in a state of emergency, which was the case from 1963 until April 2011. The Syrian constitution requires the president to be Muslim, but Islam cannot be the religion of the state (Politics of Syria). However, the judicial system is based on “French, Ottoman, and Islamic laws” per the politics of Syria article. Another interesting point regarding Syria, is their participation and memberships in global organizations including the World Health Organization, the International Chamber of Commerce, and an extensive list of other organizations.

 

     “The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current constitution as an Islamic, democratic, federal parliament republic” (Politics of Iraq), and follows the standard government of an executive, legislative and judicial branches similar to that here in the United States. Over the last few years Iraq has been engaged with foreign troops from other countries fighting within their country. Iraq has had to deal with political unrest for several years. In 2005, Iraq held National Assembly of Iraq elections. The new assembly had the burden and the honor of writing a new Constitution of Iraq (Politics of Iraq). The Iraqi presidential election occurred in 2010. In November of 2010, Jalal Talabani was named the president of Iraq.

 

     Regardless of the political or religious beliefs, and ongoing controversies, the human population is growing within this region, and without water for drinking, sanitation, agriculture, and power, a civilization cannot survive. Political standings or not a human cannot survive without clean fresh water. The forthcoming research will investigate the solutions tried, and proposed ideas for the future, to address this difficult and highly sensitive subject of the water conflict between Turkey, Syria, and Iraq that has led to the current water crisis.

 

 

Climate Change And Droughts

 

     As mentioned before in outlining the problem, one of the main concerns in water scarcity is drought, and how climate change will affect future rainfall patterns. Various studies have shown that in the next fifty years or so, rainfall will increase in some areas, and decrease in others, and temperatures will rise dramatically. This will put stress on any future treaties and conflicts between the three countries, making the climate an important factor to consider.

 

     Climate change affects all areas in the world differently, some places worry about sea levels rising; some places must deal with melting ice. Along the Tigris Euphrates River, drought is the main concern. The rain water that feeds the Tigris comes from the North Atlantic Oscillation, which affects the climate from Iceland to Morocco. One study estimates that 88% of the water in the Euphrates River comes from precipitation falling in Turkey (Cullen). While there is a wet and dry season, the amount of droughts seen in the past forty years has been abnormally high. Unfortunately, a study by Fredrick Semazzi and Baris Onol shows that there will likely be a large decrease in rainfall over the southeastern Turkey region, and rainfall patterns over Syria and Iraq will also change, with much less rainfall in the winter, and more in the fall, in part because climate change will affect the North Atlantic Oscillation. This will affect when water is available in the regions, which could affect any number of things, such as agriculture and fishing, and would likely complicate any agreements made in the near future between the three counties as their rainfall patterns change.

 

     Another issue that will provoke more droughts is the predicted temperature increase. A model from Semazzi and Onol in the Journal on Climate shows that Turkey’s average temperature will increase by six degrees Celsius in the summer, and around three degrees in winter. The temperature rise will also extend the length of the summer season into the fall. A longer summer season will put more pressure on water demands, and there will also be higher evaporation as temperatures rise.

 

     Between 2007 and 2010 Iraq and Turkey suffered an intense drought that devastated their agriculture production. Crops Iraq was famous for, such as dates, rice and grain could no longer be grown because the Euphrates River was running well below capacity. Fishing also suffered, and marshes in Iraq disappeared, harming the ecosystem. In Turkey sinkholes formed and reservoirs near the Turkish capital Ankara fell to 3% capacity. Because people in Turkey are using water quicker than it can be replenished the groundwater in the Konya Plain in quickly being used up, causing the sinkholes. Water table levels are dropping in the area, and not being allowed to replenish because of over usage of the water. The Head of the Chamber of Geological Engineers, Nalbantcilar predicts that the Konya Plain will be a desert within thirty years because the water table is drying up so fast. Entire rivers and lakes have disappeared over the droughts of the past forty years (Birch).

 

     Drought is not just a climate change caused natural disaster. It is provoked by poor water management and over usage. This is what is happening in Turkey. People there believe they are a water rich country, when in fact by international standards they are barely above the level of water poverty. Even the politicians in Turkey believe they have water to spare, as the new environmental minister in Turkey commented “"Turkey has 10 times as much water as it needs." Turkey has begun to grow Sugar Beets, which use much more water than grain, which they used to grow. However, Sugar Beets are more profitable than grain and for most farmers the only option.

 

     In arid regions like Turkey, Syria and Iraq, droughts are becoming much more common, and poor water policies are leading them to waste what little water they do have. This only serves to exacerbate the political disagreements between these three nations, as they fight over their water resources.

 

 

State Resource and Water Use

 

     The Tigris and Euphrates rivers are crucial resources of water for the countries through which they run.  Each of the countries, Turkey, Syria, and Iraq, has set up their own methods of collecting and utilizing the water from these rivers.

 

     Turkey is probably the most ambitious of the three countries along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The first major adjustment that Turkey made to the Euphrates River was the construction of the Keban Dam which was completed in 1974 (Republic of Turkey). The main intention of this dam was for the production of hydro-electricity, however, an added bonus as a result of the dam’s construction was Turkey’s ability to better control the normally irregular flow of the Euphrates River, increasing potential for irrigation. Somewhat recently the water being stored behind the Keban Dam has been used for the irrigation of more than sixty thousand hectares of agricultural land in 1999 (Republic of Turkey). Of the crops that are irrigated and grown on the Harran Plain, cotton makes up about 96% of them, followed by supplemental cereals, maize, and vegetables (Ozdogan, Woodcock, Salvucci & Demir, 2006).  However, the cultivation of the sugar beet has been growing recently due to it's value as a key cash crop.

     

     The construction of the Keban Dam was only the vanguard to a much larger plan that came to be in Turkey; the South-East Anatolia Project (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi or GAP). GAP is “a multi-sector and integrated regional development effort approached in the context of sustainable development (Republic of Turkey).” Originally this project was focused more on developing irrigation and hydraulic energy production on the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. As of now GAP’s planning on constructing a total of twenty-two dams, nineteen hydraulic power plants, and gaining the ability to irrigate about 1.7 million hectares of agricultural land (Unver, 1997).  According to a study that looked at the expansion of summer irrigated crops on the Harran Plains during the summer months by comparing satellite images, the amount of irrigated land grew nearly 300% from 1993 to 2002 (Ozdogan, et al, 2006). When the GAP finally comes to an end there's a very good chance that Syria might lose about 40% of the Euphrates flow, while Iraq would be devastated with a reduced flow of around 90% (Bulloch J. Darwish A. 1993) 

     

     Next down the Euphrates is Syria. Syria’s first major construction along the Euphrates River was the erection of the Tabqa Dam in 1973. About 10 years later the Baath and Tishrin Dams were built. Syria uses a large majority of its water collected from these dams in the agricultural sector being that agriculture is a major part of the Syrian economy, accounting for about 32% of its GDP (Salman, M. Mualla, W. 2003). 

     

     In order to maintain the agricultural system that Syria has, it uses about 87% of its available water for irrigation and agricultural needs drawing about 7,160 million cubic meters of water from the Euphrates River (Salman, M. Mualla, W. 2003). A majority of Syria’s fertile agricultural land lies to the northeast in the country’s fertile central plane. Recently this expansion of irrigated land has grown to about 1.4 million hectares.  In 2002 it was recorded that about 1.2 million hectares of cultivated land was irrigated in Syria.

    

     With Turkey using a large portion of the water coming from the Euphrates River, Syria's already in a sore position water availability wise.  However, if one were to look at the farm level of the irrigation infrastructure in Syria they would see that the methods and technologies that are used to irrigate are out-of-date and inefficient.  Syria redirects and transports a majority of its irrigation water through concrete lined canals, these systems rarely exceed 60-70% conveyance efficiency due to evaporation and poor maintenance (Salman et al, 1999).  Syria's Ministry of Irrigation has plans to convert the old open surface distribution system into pipeline system and rehabilitate new lined canal systems, yet it's growing difficult to come up with the funds to do so (Salman, M. Mualla, W. 2003).  On a smaller scale, looking at the farmers themselves, their water use efficiency falls in the low 40-60% range due to over irrigation with the use of traditional, out of date basin irrigation method.  If these farmers were to convert the current irrigation systems that they use now to other systems like drip irrigation or improve on-farm water management and conservation of water the strain of water scarcity would not be such a heavy blow (Salman, M. Mualla, W. 2003).

     

     Syria's Ministry of Irrigation has ambitious plans investing about 32 billion Syrian Pounds (600 million USD) on the rehabilitation and modernization of old irrigation projects to improve the conveyance efficiency minimize distribution losses through converting open irrigation canal systems to pressurized pipe systems and rehabilitate lined canal systems.  Also recently, the Syrian government has adapted a sort of modernization policy at the field level and encourage farmers to change to modern irrigation techniques by providing tax-free low-interest loans to cover the capital cost of modern techniques and technical advice on the implementation and use of such systems.  However, due to the lack of confidence that the farmers have in the financial return of the implementation of these techniques, the adoption on the field level has been low (Salman, M. Mualla, W. 2003).  Lack of confidence isn't the only issue on the field level however.  It's been noted that there's a lack of communication between water authorities and farmers.  Research was conducted in Syria on these new techniques that the government is recommending to farmers.  This research showed the positive influence the implementation of these technologies would have on water conservation, however that information never reached the farmers (Salman, 2002).  By establishing solid lines of communication between the researchers and the farmers and instilling and maintaining trust between the farmers and the agencies could make a major step in progress towards a stronger Syrian agriculture.

 

     Iraq shares many of the same handicaps that Syria does.  Being downstream from both Turkey and Syria, Iraq tends to get the butt end of things.  Iraq and Syria share a lot of the water usage issues dealing with inadequate irrigation techniques.  Many of the Iraqi irrigation systems are in disrepair being incredibly detrimental in the pursuit of sustainable water practices.  In order to compensate for the lack of water coming from surface water via the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers, Iraqis often have to rely on wells.  However, the over reliance on these well waters has caused the water table to drop allowing salinified water from the Prussian gulf to seep in.

 

     Agriculture within these three regions is highly dictated by the government. The political leaders decide on what crops to grow, and where to grow specific crops, thus adding to the water scarcity issue by improper water management practices, and instability of government controlling the water ways.

 

A graph showing water usage for Iraq

http://www.iauiraq.org/documents/1138/Water%20in%20Iraq%20Factsheet-Final.pdf

 

Policy Framework and Decision Making

 

     The growing issues of water scarcity directly progresses the concern of international water conflict between the riparian rights states including Turkey, Syria, and Iraq.

GAP is one of the world’s largest development projects created in Turkey. The project has many sections including thirteen major sectors to develop hydropower plants and irrigating the surrounding regions. As mentioned before, twenty-two dams and nineteen hydroelectric power plants will be installed along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and their tributaries, generating 27 billion kwh of electricity per year. The Turkish Government believes this GAP program is a solution to many of the obstacles for a developing country including irrigating 1.7 hectares of farm land and creating 3.3 million jobs.

     

     GAP started in 1936, when the Electricity Studies Administration was founded to produce solutions to utilize the rivers in Turkey for energy but action did not take place until the 70s. The GAP project started building dams and began construction for irrigation and hydroplants. The project grew into a multi-facated idea which led into a new administrative structure in the late 1980s. The government and project leaders knew this project would lead into higher standards of living for the Turkish people. The project took hiatus when high levels of terrorism threatened future development. Kurdish terrorists (PKK) damaged several dams and canals, along with killing workers on site.

The United Nations and the International Law Commission (ILC) have been working together since 1970 when the UN asked the ILC to develop international laws between the riparian states to define the ‘acquired’ rights of the waters and if historical usage plays a significant role. In 1994, the International Law Commission submitted a draft of articles on non-navigational uses of international watercourses.

 

     Iraq has been a key player as a Euphrates River consumer since Mesapotamian times. More recently, the Soviet Union had helped to develop new land uses and irrigation systems until 2000. These plans were then withheld when Saddam Husein’s rule of power and the Gulf Wars disabled any further action.

Even though Iraq and Syria are both unhappy with the Turkish use of the basin, the 2 countries are not in alliance to fix the problem. Hostilities started when Syria began developing Lake Assad, leaving the flow of the river insignificant for Iraq. Iraq reported to the Arab league to help in their favor. Syria retaliated by disaffiliating with the league on the issue. By 1975, relations were almost violent - Syria closed airspace and both countries gathered troops along the borders. Before any further action, an unofficial deal was made that Syria would keep 40% of the water from the Euphrates river and allow 60% to flow into Iraq.

 

     In response to the dissatisfaction of neighboring riparian states, Turkish President Suleyman Demirel spoke of the frustration of the nation, “Neither Syria or Iraq can lay claim to Turkey’s rivers any more than Ankara could claim their oil. This is a matter of sovereignty. We have a right to do anything we like. The water cannot say they share our water resources.”

 

Conclusions

 

     In conclusion, the previous brief background of the water conflict between Turkey, Syria and Iraq is a serious concern for those living within this region. The solution is not expected overnight, but negotiations need to be placed on the table for consideration for those in power who can assist in ended the water conflict. Human lives are at stake here and the problem, as time has shown, is not getting any better, but possibly worse.Unfortunately as the population grows not only in this region, but around the world, we may begin to see similar conflicts regarding water availability/scarcity. It is difficult to decide on a solution when political rulers wage a war over an element that is a basic staple of life. The task of defining this problem will be difficult, but truly compelling, and a must in our global society.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

 

Akanda, A., Freeman, S., and Placht, M. (2007). The Tigris-Euphrates river Basin: Mediating a Path Towards Regional Water Stability. The Fletcher School Journal for issues related to Southwest Asia and Islamic Civilization,Spring 2007. Retrieved September 5, 2011, from http://fletcher.tufts.edu/Al-Nakhlah/Archives/~/media/Fletcher/Microsites/al%20Nakhlah/archives/2007/placht-2.ashx 

 

Birch, N. (2007, September16). Turkey: droughtraisesconcernaboutapossibleenvironmentalcatastrophe. Retrievedfromhttp://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav091707a.shtml

 

Bulloch, John and Darwish, Adel, Water Wars: Coming Conflicts in the Middle East (London: Victor Gollancz, 1993), pp. 61-62; and Thomas F. Homer-Dixon, "On the Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict," International Security, vol. 16, no. 2 (Fall 1991), p. 108 as cited in Baghat, "High Policy," p. 22. Gresh, "Turkish-Isreli-Syrian Relations," p. 196 offers different figures -- 50 and 67% for Syria and Iraq, respectively.

 

Cullen, H.M, & deMenocal, Peter B. (1999). North atlantic influence on tigris-euphrates stream flow.. Manuscript submitted for publication, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA. Retrieved from http://rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu/papers/IJC_NAOfinal.pdf

 

Demir, H., Ozdogan M., Salvucci, G., Woodcock, C. (2006). Changes in Summer Irrigated Crop Area and Water Use in Southeastern Turkey from 1993 to 2002: Implications for Current and Future Water Resources. Water Resources Management, 20, 467-488. Doi: 10.1007/s11296-006-3087-0

 

Demirbas, A., Sahin-Demirbas, A., & Demirbas, A. H. (2004). Turkey’s natural gas, hydropower, and geothermal energy policies. Energy Sources, 24, 237-248. DOI: 10.1080/00908310490256590

 

Euphrates. Retrived September 11, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates

 

Onol, B. & Semazzi, F. (2009). Regionalization of climate change simulations over the eastern mediterranean. Journal of Climate, 22(8), 1944-1961. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/detail?sid=9758d995-9cb8-4d0e-b918-8ce92341544e%40sessionmgr110&vid=7&hid=102&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&AN=39361855

 

Ozdogan, M., Woodcock, C. E., Salvucci, G. D., & Demir, H. (2006). Changes in summer irrigated crop area and water use in southeastern turkey from 1993 to 2002: implications for current and future water resources. Water Resources Management, 20, 467-488. DOI: 10.1007/s11269-006-3087-0

 

Politics of Iraq. Retrieved September 18, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq

 

Politics of Syria. Retrieved September 18, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Syria

 

Politics of Turkey. Retrieved September 18, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Turkey

 

Reed, C.(2005). Paradise Lost? What should-or can-be done about “the environmental crime of the century?” Harvard Magazine, 1-8. RetrievedSeptember 7, 2011, fromhttp://harvardmagazine.com/2005/01/paradise-lost.html

 

Robertson, Campbell. (2009, July 13). "Iraq suffers as the Euphrates River dwindles". New York Times, p. A1. . Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/14/world/middleeast/14euphrates.html

 

Salman, M. (2002). “Case Study on Irrigation Modernization of Old Alyarmook Project in Syria”. Study Report. IPTRID, FAO, Rome, Italy.

          

Salman, M., Burton, M., and Dakar, E. (1999). “Improved Irrigation Water Management, or Drainage Water Reuse: A Case Study from the Euphrates Basin in Syria”. Proceedings of the 2nd Inter-Regional on Environment-Water. Lausanne, Switzerland, September 1999.

 

Salman, M. and Mualla, W., 2003. The Utilization of Water Resources for Agriculture in Syria: Analysis of Current Situation and Future Challenges. Food and Agriculture Organization – Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform of the Syrian Arab Republic FAO-MAAR, Rome. Retrieved from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/iptrid/conf_italy_03.pdf 

 

TEA¸ S, Turkish Electricity Generation and Transmission Company (Turkish initials “TEA¸ S”). 1999. Electricity Generation transmission statistics of Turkey. APK-377, Ankara, Turkey.

 

Tigris. Retrieved September 5, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigris

 

U¨ nver, O. I. H., 1997, ‘Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP)’, Water Resour. Dev. 13, 453–483. Wiegand, C. L., Everitt, J. H., and Richardson, A. J., 1992, ‘Comparison of multispectral video and SPOT-1 HRV observations for cotton affected by soil salinity’, Int. J. Rem. Sen. 13, 1511–1525.  Retrieved from www.digitalcommons.unl.edu

 

National Agricultural Policy Center, Syrian Agricultural Database (2006), available at <http://

www.napcsyr.org/sadb.htm>.

 

 

Tigris and Euphrates Contributing Factors

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