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Beijing Problem Narrative

 

Nature of the Problem:

 

Current patterns of water consumption in Beijing are not sustainable.  In 2007 total annual water use was estimated to be 3.25 billion cubic meters which is 500 million cubic meters beyond the amount that can be recharged annually [8]  An estimated 70-80% of this 3.25 billion cubic meters was withdrawn from groundwater sources that are already severely depleted [8] All of this emerges from the interaction of several complex dynamics that are driven by government policy, unprecedented economic growth, and population growth within the city.

 

As population density increased and the municipality of Beijing emerged as an industrial and political powerhouse, water resources were consumed and polluted at a higher rate. Water policy in the municipality of Beijing has largely ignored the limited nature of it's water resources.  This led to poor regulation and oversight of water use, infrastructure, pollution, and conservation. However, since China depends upon Beijing as an economic engine for the nation and as an international symbol of China’s prowess, the Chinese government had made it a priority to provide Beijing with cheap and plentiful water supply.

 

Beijing has become one of the largest cities in the world. [8] This growth has been fueled by an extensive industrial and service base, while the burgeoning population creates demand for agricultural products, either local or imported. As a result, Beijing’s growth results in higher water consumption in the domestic, industrial sector, and agricultural sectors. Beijing's natural resource regulatory infrastructure has lagged behind growth, creating a crisis and need for significant as water resources are increasingly depleted and pollution has degraded existing resources.

 

History of the Problem:

 

Beijing's water problems date back to the thirteenth century. During the Yaun dynasty the city made use of large scale construction projects to meet the capital's growing industrial, agricultural, and domestic demands. During this period the capital Beijing, then called Dadu, was actually moved a short distance to increase their access to water from the Gaoliang River[13]. Wengshan Lake was built just to the north of Beijing to ensure a steady supply of water. 

 

In 1751 Wengshan Lake, Beijing’s only supply of fresh water at the time was expanded. Wengshan Lake remained the primary source of water until the 1950’s when the Guanting and Miyun reservoirs were constructed along with eighty-five smaller reservoirs [13].

 

For the past 25 years the municipality has experienced below-average rainfall. Whether or not this is defined as a 25-year drought or that the climate is changing is still in debate. Regardless, below-average rainfall means less surface runoff flowing into Beijing’s rivers and reservoirs along with less water for groundwater recharge. Beijing’s growing population and industrial development have driven an increase in demand but are not the main culprits behind the water crisis. The average annual precipitation for Beijing is listed in Figure 3 below [8]. See from the figure that rainfall from 1999 to 2008 was less than 50% of the levels in 1970-72.

 

 

 

Figure 3: Average annual precipitation for Beijing, China from 1970-2008 [8]. 

 

 

In 1970, Beijing experienced an extreme drought which caused the central government to limit the use of water from their main reservoirs, the Guanting and the Miyun. Miyun’s currently stores only 1.13 billion cubic meters, or about 15 percent of its total storage capacity. The falling levels at Miyun have caused more than 100,000 hectares of farmland to lie fallow and has motivated farmers to dig 30,000 new wells. Figure 4 shows the trends in water storage in both the Miyun and Guanting reservoirs. It is this decline, along with the growing agricultural production needs that have fed Beijing’s increasing reliance on groundwater for agricultural uses [15].

Figure 4: Declining volume of Guanting and Miyun reservoirs [8] 

 

Current Status of the Problem:

 

Beijing is running out of fresh water. Given all the factors listed earlier (reduced rainfall, declining reservoir levels, increasing population), the annual per capita supply of water in Beijing is estimated to be approximately 170 m³[8]. Beijing would have to increase their water availability per capita by six times in order to meet the United Nations standard of 1000 cubic meters per person per year. There are several definitive reasons that Beijing is suffering from water scarcity.

 

China is suffering from water scarcity due to a combination of population growth, climate change, resource exploitation, and a geographically limited usable water supply. First, the population and economy are growing at a rapid rate. Second, both water quantity and water quality are deteriorating because of drought, irrigation, industrial demand, and domestic use. Third, the local water is seriously polluted, there is 1.2 billion m³ of waste water discharged in Beijing, which 0.9 billion m³ is from the urban area, and only 16% of which is treated through waste water treatment plants [12]. Fourth,  the groundwater is over extracted from both agricultural and urban use.

 

The Beijing Water Bureau estimates that its available groundwater – that which can be safely extracted without depleting the resource – ranges from 2.0 to 2.45 billion cubic metres per year, depending on rainfall [8]. This combined with the 0.8 billion cubic meters of water available annually from surface water reservoirs gives the municipality of Beijing an up extreme annual 3.25 billion cubic meters of water withdrawal to operate with. Currently Beijing is exceeding this recharge estimate. This overuse results in an unsustainable water resource and contributes to the 170 cubic meters per person per year water scarcity in Beijing.

 

However, Beijing has made improvements in reducing the impacts of each of these factors. Beijing along with many other regions of the world today places value in economic growth over quick conservation of natural resources. Beijing has had enough water in the past, but more recently Beijing’s water supply has shown it’s vulnerability. However, instead of addressing the roots of the problem in order to develop a sustainable water supply, China instead sought to expand its supply of water without addressing consumption patterns or routes to greater water efficiency and less pollution. Most of the country's efforts to expand its supply have relied on short term, large scale solutions to keep cheap water flowing to it’s capital.

 

Population Growth:

 

Beijing’s population has been growing for over a thousand years but in the last fifty they have experienced a population explosion. As shown in Figure 5, the population of Beijing in 1953 was about 2.8 million while the current population is nearly 20 million [6]. The country of China as a whole has successfully slowed its growth using strict government policies but the Municipality of Beijing continues to grow at a rate of approximately 1.4% per year [1]. This growth is primarily in the form of immigration from other areas of China for the economic success of Beijing. Figure 5 below illustrates the population increase in millions of people of Beijing since 1950. Notice how Figure 3 and Figure 4 are inversely related to Figure 5 below.

 

Figure 5: Population of Beijing, China from 1953-2010[8]

 

Pollution:

 

In 2000 there was 1.2 billion m³of total waste water discharged in Beijing, which 0.9 billion m³is from the urban area, and only 16% of which is treated through waste water treatment plants[12] The amount of unaccounted waste water discharge indicates that there is the potential for large amounts of water pollution in Beijing. There is also “A national survey of seven major rivers in China, carried out in 2004, revealed that water quality measurements in 28% of 412 monitored sections were below grade V, the worst grade in the national standard for water quality in China...For the Haihe River, which provides the cities of Beijing and Tianjin with the bulk of their drinking water, this figure was as high as 57%,” Grade 5 water quality in China means that the water is completely unfit for any use."[21]

 

Water Pricing:

 

(need new section)

 

 

 

Consumption by Sector:

 

Neglecting the drought, the high water consumption and contamination rates per capita can be controlled. Thus, the drought and rapid demand growth aren’t the only factors behind Beijing’s water crisis. Short-sighted policies since 1949 such as pricing water lower than the cost to produce the water and loose pollution standards have degraded Beijing’s watershed and promoted the over-use of limited water resources. Figure 8 illustrates Beijing’s water use by agriculture, industry, and domestic use in the urban environment. Keep in mind that even though the consumptions by sector are decreasing, they are responding to the decrease in supply with technological advancements in water storage, water transportation, and water utilization thus slightly decreasing the overall consumption but more so shifting the consumption per sector. 

 

Figure 8:  Beijing water use by sector [8].

 

Since, 1975, the amount of water used for agriculture has dropped by more than one-half while domestic consumption has increased ten-fold. From 1995 to 2005, the volume of water used for domestic purposes has more than doubled, accounting for 39 percent of total water use in 2005, up from 17 percent in 1995 [8]. The volume of water used for agriculture has dropped by one-third, accounting for just 38 percent of total water use in 2005 compared to 56 percent in 1995. The volume of water used by industry has dropped by one quarter, accounting for 20 percent of total water use in 2005 compared to 26 percent in 1995 [8]. As Figure 6 suggests, the total consumption has been decreasing, however the supply of available freshwater is decreasing at a more rapid rate than the decreasing of water consumption. 

 

Current Policies:

 

These policies may work in the short run as an emergency measure, but not as a fundamental solution in this malleable time. Long distance diversion is extraordinarily expensive and environmentally damaging. Even though the water diversion project may provide more water to Beijing, groundwater will still be extracted as Beijing’s most relied source of water. That is, Beijing will continue to pump groundwater at a current rate of 3 billion m³ per year to keep up with the forecasted growth at the current water demand; 500 million m³ over the annual allowable limit for “safe” extraction of groundwater [8]. Thus, even though the water diversion project will supply more surface water for Beijing, groundwater will actually be extracted at a higher rate. Regarding stakeholders, water will be removed from an increasing demand in regions which rely on the quality and quantity of the Yangtze river such as Shanghai, and increasing costs to China’s economy and environment.

 

The current methods and policies regarding Beijing’s and China’s water crisis are aimed at short term engineered solutions blinded by the infinite growth and infinite resource paradigm. The increase of dams, diversion canals, and pipelines sound appealing in the short run, but are economically and environmentally ruinous and neglect that water at this consumption can be considered a non-renewable resource.

 

●      Reallocate surface water from rural to urban consumers

●      Extract ever-deeper groundwater

●      Divert surface water to Beijing city from reservoirs and rivers outside Beijing municipality

●      Restrict water use in upstream Hebei

●      Cut off river flow to downstream Tianjin

●      Shut down or relocate polluting and water-intensive industries

 

Beijing’s current water consumption policies can be categorized into three distinct groups listed below. The first group relates to extracting water from river basins outside of the Beijing municipality, the second category refers to increasing the surface water through runoff of upstream, finally the third category refers to the conservation and protection of groundwater.

 

Extract water from river basins outside Beijing municipality

 

This policy refers to water diversion projects underway to bring water from Hebei by limiting their consumption. Hebei officials fear that this series of new developments will cut off water to nine cities and counties downstream, affecting water supply to nearly three million people, worsen desertification in the region, and threaten the ecology of Lake Baiyangdian in North China.

 

Figure 9: China’s South-North Diversion project extracting water from the Yangtze River to the Yellow river, and on to Beijing [8].   

 

Increase runoff from upstream areas

 

This policy refers to a “water allocation plan” issued earlier this year by China’s Ministry of Water Resources and the country’s lead planning agency, the National Development and Planning Commission. Under this plan, upstream Shanxi and Hebei provinces must guarantee surface water to Beijing as follows: 420 million cubic metres in a normal year, 215 million cubic metres in a moderately dry year, and 90 million cubic metres in a dry year [8].

 

Exploit and protect groundwater

 

Within the last 10 years, the State Council and Beijing authorities announced several policies to guarantee water during the 2008 Olympics and the future. The three main policies provide restrictions on surface and groundwater use in upstream Hebei province to increase the river flow to Beijing, water transfers from existing and proposed reservoirs in Hebi province and Yangtze River, and allowing extraction of karst groundwater from depths of 1,000 meters or more from Beijing’s outlying districts [8].

 

As noted earlier, more than two-thirds of Beijing’s current water supply comes from groundwater within Beijing municipality, including karst groundwater from depths of 1,000 metres or more. This latest policy announcement refers to restrictions imposed on groundwater use outside Beijing municipality, which the central government claims will help increase surface runoff to Beijing. For example, Hebei province has banned groundwater use in the area where Beijing’s largest rivers, Yongding and Chaobai, are said to originate – the Bashang area of Hebei’s Zhangjiakou city, northeast of Beijing. Zhangjiakou city has also introduced a water licensing system aimed at restricting the use of groundwater for growing vegetables.

 

Groundwater is recharged with 44% of the precipitation and 31% of the seepage of surface water. However, due to the increase of concrete infrastructure, runoff has increased and thus decreased the ability for surface water to infiltrate groundwater [8].

 

To slow the depletion of groundwater aquifers on Beijing plain, China’s Ministry of Water Resources developed a plan to extract groundwater from karst aquifers in Beijing’s outlying districts. Traditionally, these karst aquifers – with groundwater at depths of 1,000 metres or more – have been protected as emergency water reserves for use only in times of war or for use by future generations. But in 2004, the national water ministry completed two of five planned deep groundwater extraction projects [8].

 

Surface Water: 

 

The majority of the remaining surface water reserves are located in the Guanting and Miyun reservoirs. The Guanting reservoir is situated at the border between Beijing and Huailai county, Hebei province having a storage capacity for as much as 4.16 billion m³ of water [2]. The Guanting reservoir is classified as a Category IV on the water quality scale, 1 step below Category V, which is regarded as unsafe for domestic, industrial, and irrigation for agricultural use and is currently out of use for drinking water for the Municipality since 1997 [8]. The Miyun reservoir is located 100km from downtown Beijing on the Yanshan Mountain and is the single largest source of domestic tap water. The reservoir originally contained 4.375 billion m³ of water in the 1960s but due to high demand for domestic, industrial, and agricultural goods, the level of water quantity and quality has greatly decreased down to close to 10% of initial capacity [8].

 

 

Summary

 

The unsustainable water resources in Beijing China can be related to the population growth, GDP growth, government attitude fueling the GDP, and climate change. Figure 10 above illustrates how each factor affects one another. The increase in population increases the demand for food and water, and due to the fact that the majority of the surface water in the Guanting and Miyun reservoirs are contaminated and diminished, groundwater extraction increases to satisfy the demand for domestic and agricultural use. The skyrocketing GDP of China and Beijing has created favor for economic growth rather than water conservation which results in inadequate consumption, pollution, and policy enforcement. Even though these issues are a costly fix, it ignoring the problem will create greater and greater sunk costs. A recent study from the World Bank estimated teh cost of water scarcity associated with water pollution at 147 billion yuan, or about 1 percent of GDP, and the cost of health-related impacts in rural areas at 1.9 percent of rural GDP in 2003. MEP estimated the cost of environmental degredation caused by water pollution in 2004 at about 1.7 percent of GDP. Finally, climate change has contributed to the severe drought, which decreases the surface water and groundwater infiltration. All of these factors contribute to the overall unsustainable water resource supply in Beijing. Beijing has, however, made significant progress to the water crisis it currently faces. Beijing has made short term efforts to improve the water quality and quantity such as efforts with the water diversion project and newly constructed desalination plants along with increasing water prices. The water scarcity can be attributed to nearly a century of improper infrastructure development, population increase, and water management techniques as the effects of these developments are catching up at a nearly devastating rate.  

 

 

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